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<article xmlns:mml="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" xmlns:xlink="http://www.w3.org/1999/xlink" xmlns:xsi="http://www.w3.org/2001/XMLSchema-instance" xmlns:ali="http://www.niso.org/schemas/ali/1.0/" article-type="research-article" dtd-version="1.2" xml:lang="en"><front><journal-meta><journal-id journal-id-type="publisher-id">Progress in Physiological Science</journal-id><journal-title-group><journal-title xml:lang="en">Progress in Physiological Science</journal-title><trans-title-group xml:lang="ru"><trans-title>Успехи физиологических наук</trans-title></trans-title-group></journal-title-group><issn publication-format="print">0301-1798</issn><issn publication-format="electronic">3034-6118</issn><publisher><publisher-name xml:lang="en">The Russian Academy of Sciences</publisher-name></publisher></journal-meta><article-meta><article-id pub-id-type="publisher-id">693394</article-id><article-id pub-id-type="doi">10.7868/S3034611825030013</article-id><article-categories><subj-group subj-group-type="toc-heading" xml:lang="en"><subject>Articles</subject></subj-group><subj-group subj-group-type="toc-heading" xml:lang="ru"><subject>Статьи</subject></subj-group><subj-group subj-group-type="article-type"><subject>Research Article</subject></subj-group></article-categories><title-group><article-title xml:lang="en">Brain insulin: delivery routes, mechanisms of action, and application of intranasal insulin for the treatment of diabetes mellitus and metabolic syndrome</article-title><trans-title-group xml:lang="ru"><trans-title>Инсулин в мозге: пути доставки, механизмы действия, применение интраназального инсулина для лечения сахарного диабета и метаболического синдрома</trans-title></trans-title-group></title-group><contrib-group><contrib contrib-type="author"><name-alternatives><name xml:lang="en"><surname>Shpakov</surname><given-names>A. O.</given-names></name><name xml:lang="ru"><surname>Шпаков</surname><given-names>А. О.</given-names></name></name-alternatives><email>alex_shpakov@list.ru</email><xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1"/></contrib><contrib contrib-type="author"><name-alternatives><name xml:lang="en"><surname>Derkach</surname><given-names>K. V.</given-names></name><name xml:lang="ru"><surname>Деркач</surname><given-names>К. В.</given-names></name></name-alternatives><email>derkatch_k@list.ru</email><xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1"/></contrib></contrib-group><aff-alternatives id="aff1"><aff><institution xml:lang="en">Sechenov Institute of Evolutionary Physiology and Biochemistry of the Russian Academy of Sciences</institution></aff><aff><institution xml:lang="ru">Федеральное государственное бюджетное учреждение науки Институт эволюционной физиологии и биохимии им. И.М. Сеченова РАН</institution></aff></aff-alternatives><pub-date date-type="pub" iso-8601-date="2025-09-15" publication-format="electronic"><day>15</day><month>09</month><year>2025</year></pub-date><volume>56</volume><issue>3</issue><issue-title xml:lang="en">VOL 56, NO3 (2025)</issue-title><issue-title xml:lang="ru">ТОМ 56, №3 (2025)</issue-title><fpage>3</fpage><lpage>23</lpage><history><date date-type="received" iso-8601-date="2025-10-15"><day>15</day><month>10</month><year>2025</year></date></history><permissions><copyright-statement xml:lang="en">Copyright ©; 2025, Russian Academy of Sciences</copyright-statement><copyright-statement xml:lang="ru">Copyright ©; 2025, Российская академия наук</copyright-statement><copyright-year>2025</copyright-year><copyright-holder xml:lang="en">Russian Academy of Sciences</copyright-holder><copyright-holder xml:lang="ru">Российская академия наук</copyright-holder><ali:free_to_read xmlns:ali="http://www.niso.org/schemas/ali/1.0/" start_date="2026-09-15"/></permissions><self-uri xlink:href="https://genescells.com/0301-1798/article/view/693394">https://genescells.com/0301-1798/article/view/693394</self-uri><abstract xml:lang="en"><p>Insulin is traditionally considered a hormone of pancreatic origin that regulates glucose homeostasis and a wide range of metabolic and hormonal processes at the periphery. However, in recent decades, convincing evidence has been obtained that insulin also controls many processes in the brain, performing the functions of a neurotrophic factor, neuromodulator and neuroprotector, and some areas of the brain are capable of synthesizing insulin de novo. Insulin implements its effects in the central nervous system through the insulin signaling system, which in its structural and functional organization and regulatory mechanisms has significant similarities with that in the periphery. Since the total pool of insulin in the CNS consists of insulin produced by β-cells and entering the brain through the blood-brain barrier (BBB) and the hormone synthesized by brain structures, a decrease in its production or weakening of its transport through the BBB lead to insulin deficiency in the brain and disruption of its signaling. Other causes of weakened insulin signaling in the brain include central insulin resistance, neuroinflammation caused by increased activity of proinflammatory factors, the development of reactive astrogliosis and activation of microglia, as well as increased activity of enzymes that cause insulin degradation. One of the promising approaches for effective restoration of insulin signaling in the CNS is the use of intranasally administered insulin (IAI), which enters the brain directly through axonal pathways. Currently, IAI is used in the clinic to treat patients with Alzheimer's disease and cognitive deficit associated with type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM). However, the therapeutic potential of IAI is not limited to this. We have shown that IAI is effective in correcting metabolic and hormonal disorders associated with T1DM, T2DM, metabolic syndrome and obesity, and a number of its restorative effects are enhanced by the combined use of IAI with metformin, proinsulin C-peptide, and gangliosides, administered both systemically and intranasally. This indicates that the targets of IAI in diabetic pathology and obesity are not only brain structures, but also peripheral organs and tissues, including components of the gonadal and thyroid systems. This review is devoted to the problem of insulin signaling in the brain, its disorders in various pathologies, as well as the use of IAI to restore the activity of the brain's insulin system, including for the purpose of normalizing neurocognitive, metabolic and hormonal indicators in diabetic pathology.</p></abstract><trans-abstract xml:lang="ru"><p>Инсулин традиционно считают гормоном панкреатического происхождения, который регулирует глюкозный гомеостаз и широкий спектр метаболических и гормональных процессов на периферии. Однако в последние десятилетия получены убедительные доказательства того, что инсулин также контролирует множество процессов в мозге, выполняя функции нейротрофического фактора, нейромодулятора и нейропротектора, причем некоторые области мозга способны синтезировать инсулин de novo. Свои эффекты в ЦНС инсулин реализует через инсулиновую сигнальную систему, которая по структурно-функциональной организации и механизмам регуляции имеет значительное сходство с таковой на периферии. Поскольку общий пул инсулина в ЦНС складывается из инсулина, продуцируемого β-клетками и поступающего в мозг через гематоэнцефалический барьер (ГЭБ), и гормона, синтезируемого структурами мозга, то снижение его продукции или ослабление транспорта через ГЭБ приводят к дефициту инсулина в мозге и нарушению его сигнализации. Другими причинами ослабления инсулинового сигналинга в мозге являются центральная инсулиновая резистентность, нейровоспаление, обусловленное повышением активности провоспалительных факторов, развитием реактивного астроглиоза и активацией микроглии, а также повышение активности ферментов, вызывающих деградацию инсулина. Одним из перспективных подходов для эффективного восстановления инсулинового сигналинга в ЦНС является применение интраназально вводимого инсулина (ИВИ), который по аксональным путям попадает непосредственно в мозг. В настоящее время ИВИ применяется в клинике для лечения пациентов с болезнью Альцгеймера и с когнитивным дефицитом, ассоциированным с сахарным диабетом 2 типа (СД2). Однако этим терапевтический потенциал ИВИ не исчерпывается. Нами показано, что ИВИ эффективен при коррекции метаболических и гормональных нарушений, ассоциированных с СД1, СД2, метаболическим синдромом и ожирением, причем ряд его восстанавливающих эффектов усиливается при комбинированном применении ИВИ с метформином, С-пептидом проинсулина, ганглиозидами, вводимыми как системно, так и интраназально. Это указывает на то, что мишенями ИВИ при диабетической патологии и ожирении являются не только структуры мозга, но и периферические органы и ткани, включая компоненты гонадной и тиреоидной систем. Настоящий обзор посвящен проблеме инсулиновой сигнализации в мозге, ее нарушениям при различной патологии, применению ИВИ для восстановления активности инсулиновой системы мозга, в том числе с целью нормализации нейрокогнитивных, метаболических и гормональных показателей при диабетической патологии.</p></trans-abstract><kwd-group xml:lang="en"><kwd>intranasal insulin</kwd><kwd>brain</kwd><kwd>insulin signaling system</kwd><kwd>diabetes mellitus</kwd><kwd>metabolic syndrome</kwd><kwd>neurodegeneration</kwd><kwd>endocrine system</kwd></kwd-group><kwd-group xml:lang="ru"><kwd>интраназальный инсулин</kwd><kwd>мозг</kwd><kwd>инсулиновая сигнальная система</kwd><kwd>сахарный диабет</kwd><kwd>метаболический синдром</kwd><kwd>нейродегенерация</kwd><kwd>эндокринная система</kwd></kwd-group><funding-group><funding-statement xml:lang="ru">Работа выполнена при поддержке государственного задания ИЭФБ РАН (№ 075-00263-25-00).</funding-statement></funding-group></article-meta></front><body></body><back><ref-list><ref id="B1"><label>1.</label><mixed-citation>Деркач К.В., Бондарева В.М., Басова Н.Е. и др. 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